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Different Types of Cells

Cell is a basic functional and structural unit of life that is capable of independent existence and arises from pre-existing cells. If we sit down to classify them then there are two basic types: Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. It is not that they are morphologically different but also vary in their metabolic system, structure and reproduction. However be it of any type they belong to any of the five kingdoms that is Monera, Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia.

Prokaryotic Cells:

In these cells the nucleus is devoid of nuclear membrane. Genetic information is generally stored in plasmids instead of chromosomal DNA. Their size is approximately 1-2µm in diameter and 10µm in length roughly size of mitochondria. They vary in shapes also and are spherical shaped, rod shaped and spiral shaped. They divide by the process of binary fission. Prokaryotes perform various functions in the environment such as decomposers, fermentations and also play a crucial role in our digestive cycle. Prokaryotes are an integral part of nitrogen cycle thus restoring nitrates back to the soil. They also have the flexibility of using sulfur for their metabolism instead of oxygen. Bacteria and cyanobacteria belong to this class.

Eukaryotic Cells:

Their most distinguishing feature is the presence of membrane bound nucleus. Apart from nucleus they also have other membrane bound structures called as organelles. Mitochondria and chloroplast being the most important organelles perform metabolic and energy conversion functions respectively. Other than these organelles there is another structure known as endoplasmic reticulum which aids in transportation and structural support. Plant cell is also an important member of eukaryotic cells; they function in a similar way only. It is just that they have three additional structures which are cell wall, vacuoles and plastids. Members of all kingdoms except that of Monera come under this type.

There is another mode of classifying cells that is on the basis of their origin.

Cells arising from ectoderm

Ectoderm is the outermost germinal layer and there is variety of cells in human body originating from this layer.

v  Gland cells: Exocrine secretary cells

• Mucous cell of Salivary Glands
• Serous cell of Salivary Glands
• Mammary gland for milk secretion
• Lacrimal gland for tear secretion)
• Ceruminous gland cell of ear
• Sebaceous gland
• Seminal vesicles secreting seminal fluid components
• Prostate gland cell
• Mucous cell of stomach lining
• Clara cell of lung

v  Hormone secreting cells:

There are various glands which may be endocrine or exocrine which are responsible for secretion of hormones. Hormones are responsible for different physiological as well as metabolic activities in human body.

• Anterior Pituitary Gland: secrete different hormones like
  • Somatotropes
  • Corticotropes
  • Thyrotropes
  • Lactotropes
  • Gonadotropes

• Intermediate Pituitary Gland which secrete Melanocyte stimulating hormone

• Neurosecretory Cells: it secretes hormones like oxytocin and vasopressin

• Gut and respiratory tract cells secretes an array of hormones
• serotonin
• endorphin
• insulin
• glucagon
• somatostatin
•  cholecystokinin
•  gastrin
• secretin

• Thyroid Gland cells
• Parathyroid Gland cells
• Aderenal Gland cells which secrete steroid hormones
• Leydig cells found in testes secrete testosterone
• Ovarian follicles secreting estrogen
• Corpus luteum cells secreting progesterone
  • Juxtaglomerular cell for renin secretion
  • Mesangial cells of kidney

Cells arising from epithelial cells lining the body cavities

• Synovial cell  found in lining joint cavities which secrete hyaluronic acid
• Serosal cell found in lining of peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial cavities
• Squamous cell lying in the lining perilymphatic space of ear
• Squamous cell in the space of ear
• Columnar cell of ear
• cell again  in the lining  ear

Then there are ciliated cells with propulsive task

• Ciliated cells of respiratory tract
• Ciliated cells of ovarian follicle
• Ciliated cells in brain cavity
• Ciliated cells of rete testis
• Ciliated cells of uterus lining

Cells arising from endoderm

Endoderm is the inner most germinal layer. Generally cells of Integumentary system and   Nervous system are included in this. They include

v  Integumentary cells

• Keratinized Epithelial Cells
• Wet stratified barrier epithelial cells

v  Nervous system

• Transducer cells
• Autonomic nervous system cells
• Sense organs
• Peripheral neuron supporting cells
• Central nervous system cells
• Glial cells
• Lens cells

Cells derived from mesoderm

Mesoderm is the middle germinal layer. It includes:

v  Storage and Metabolic cells

• Liver cells
• Fat cells

v  Barrier Function cells: They include cells of lung, gut, exocrine cells, kidney cells, urinogenital tract cells

v  Matrix Cells: They are extracellular and include:

• Ameloblast  cell  for tooth enamel secretion)
• Organ of Corti
• Fibroblasts
• Tendon fibroblasts
• Bone marrow fibroblasts
• Odontoblast
• Hyaline cartilage cells
• Osteoblast/osteocyte
• vitreous cells of eye

v  Contractile Cells

Skeletal muscles

Heart muscles

Stem cells

Myoepithelial cell of iris and exocrine glands

v  Blood and immune cells

Erythrocytes

Platelets

Monocyte

Macrophages

Langerhans cel

Osteoclast

Dendritic cell

Microglial cell

Neutrophils

Eosinophils

Basophils

Mast cell

Helper T cell

Suppressor T cell

Cytotoxic T cell

Natural Killer  cell

B cell

v  Pigment Cells include retinal pigment cells and melanocytes

v  Germ Cells includes oocytes, spermatids and spermatocytes

v  Nurse Cells: Ovarian follicle cells, Sertoli cells of testes and thymus epithelial cells come under this category

v  Interstitial cells basically that of kidney

Different Types of Abuse

Before getting into categorization and classification, it is most important understand what is abuse? What kind of a behavior is actually capable of being called an “abuse”? In a broader perspective, abuse can be termed as a behavior which is unfair and is done for a bad purpose. There are so many different types of abuses. People generally talk about abuses in a relationship. However, abusive behavior or treatment may also be encountered in other fields of life as well. If one begins to count, there will probably be more than a hundred kinds of abuses. This article discusses a few kinds of abuses which exist most commonly in life.

1. Abuse of Information: Plagiarism, which refers to copying and using the copied information by one’s own name, is a part of the Abuse of information. Apart from this, using a piece of information without the permission of the person concerned and for inappropriate actions is also an abuse of information. Inside trading, in which the prices known only to a set of people are made public to a party so that it may benefit from it, is also an abuse of information.
2. Abuse of Power: Abuse of power is a major issue in most of the developing and even the developed nations. Abuse of power refers to a situation when a person unlawfully uses the power of his office and his position to benefit himself or a known party. Over the years, many politicians, bureaucrats, government official etc. have been expelled from duty on the grounds of abuse of power.
3. Abuse of Statistics: Abuse of Statistics refers to a situation when a person changes or modulates the correct statistics in such a way that they become false and helpful to a person or organization in particular. At times, the change is statistics may be by mistake. However, at other times, it is well-intended and on purpose. It is in these cases that abuse of statistics becomes a punishable crime. For instance, if a doctor forms an incorrect report on purpose and to achieve some unlawful purpose, he can end up losing his job as well his license to practice.
4. Ad Hominem Abuse: This is a kind of abuse which intends to inflict blames on a person to exploit his image and social standing. To belittle the man who is playing the opponent, one may go on to talking about his character, conduct etc. For instance, saying that, “Che Guevara was not a man worthy of respect because he was responsible for so many killings” would be an ad hominem.
5. Animal Abuse: Animal abuse refers to treating animals cruelly for purposes that are endearing to humans. Many organizations across the world, like PETA and PFA have been working to improve the conditions of animals and to stop animal abuse. Time and over, many celebrities have also come up for the cause. Most people have given up eating non-vegetarian food and stopped wearing fur to stop animal abuse.
6. Bullying: Bullying is basically a kind of abuse where the more powerful bully or makes the less powerful suffer. There are many different kinds of bullying- verbal, physical or emotional. There are strict laws to deal with bullying in some countries. However, some other countries do not have a defined statement for bullying and no specified punishment for it either. In the recent years, bullying has become a very common offence in schools and colleges.
7. Character Assassination: Character assassination is a type of abuse where an attempt is made to spoil the reputation of a person. It can also be concerned as a type of ad hominem. Modifying the true news and making it into something untrue is a character of character assassination. A person can sue another person or organizations on the grounds of conducting character assassination.
8. Child Abuse: Child Abuse is a crime and that too of a high stature. Child abuse refers to an improper treatment of a child that may cause physical or emotional injury to the child. According to the statistics, it is believed that the most common place of child abuse is the home itself. Some of the cases of child abuse also happen at school, colleges and other community places. Child abuse is essentially of four types- sexual abuse, neglect, emotional or psychological abuse and physical abuse. There are strict laws to deal with child abuse in almost all nations.
9. Clandestine Abuse: The clandestine abuse is a type of abuse where the victim is abused physically, mentally or sexually and the crime is kept hidden from the society. This type of abuse is most common in high profile cases where the criminals have both power and money to keep the crime clandestine.
10. Cyber Abuse: Cyber Abuse is the kind of abuse which involves the use of cyber space and cyber technology to defame a person or spread untruthful knowledge about him which can cause a huge deal of harm to his social reputation. The instances of cyber crime have increased in recent times due to evolution of social networking.
11. Detainee Abuse or Prisoner Abuse:  Prisoner Abuse or Detainee Abuse refers to the mistreatment of prisoners by the prison authorities. Prisoner Abuse can also be of many different types- physical, psychological, sexual, torture, humiliation etc. The biggest incident of prisoner abuse came in front of the world when the pictures of prisoner abuse in Abu Gharib prison of Iraq were exposed to the world.
12. Discriminatory Abuse: The world is full of people who are different in many ways- caste, religion, race, color, nationality etc. When discrimination is made against someone owing to their being different in some or the other way from the people in authority, it is referred to as Discriminatory abuse. Once, discriminatory abuse against the blacks was very common. However, the conditions have improved majorly now.
13. Domestic Abuse or Domestic Violence: Domestic violence is the kind of abuse which involves violence against one partner from the other partner. The violence may also be inflicted by both the partners over each other. There can be many causes for domestic abuse – alcohol, mental illness etc. Domestic Violence includes physical violence, sexual abuse, rape, emotional abuse or abuse of any other kind.
14. Employee Abuse: Employee Abuse refers to use of any kind of physical, emotional or psychological abusive practices towards a colleague or a co-worker. Employee abuse can be considered to be a part of bullying. Sometimes, the employers bully the employees. The cases of employee abuse have become more common in recent times.
15. Financial Abuse: Financial Abuse is when a person starts to show unlawful rights over someone else’s property, money, financial bonds, belongings etc. There have been many cases when the power of attorney was unlawfully transferred from one person to the other.
16. Flag Abuse: The flag abuse or abuse of flag refers to those incidents when the flag of a nation or an organization publicly disrespected. Most of the countries have stringent laws that would stop the abuse of flag.
17. Gay Abuse: Till only a few year back, gay people were not given the equal rights in society. As a matter of fact, the gay community had to go through many problems before states and nations began to recognize it as a normal sexual orientation and it became acceptable. However, in certain parts of the world, gay people are still abused in public. Gay abuse is a kind of abuse when gay people are bullied, beaten up, discriminated or unfairly treated because of their being gay. There are strict rules against gay abuse now.
18. Harassment: Harassment is a type of abuse. Harassment involves a number of different types of abuses. Any illegal or unlawful act which is intended to disturb or create problems in the life of a person or an entire community or organization is termed as Harassment. The harassment can be of many different types – power harassment, sexual harassment, electronic harassment, computer harassment, mental harassment etc. Like any other types of abuse, every country has strict laws against harassment too.
19. Human Rights Abuse: Human Rights are those rights which are granted to every citizen of a nation. In case these rights are exploited, a person can move to the court. Human Right abuse is when the citizens of a nation or a citizen in particular is denied their human rights. Right to food, Right to education, Freedom of speech etc. are all human rights.
20. Legal Abuse: Legal abuse is when the legal rights of a person are exploited. Apart from this, legal abuse can also be conducted by legal authorities, attorneys and people related to profession of law. There are so many kinds of legal abuse- law enforcement abuse, legal abuse conducted by advocates or judiciary and legal abuse by litigants.
21. Mental Abuse: This type of abuse is also known as psychological abuse. Psychological or mental abuse is when a person inflicts upon another person situations and behavior that can cause mental trauma, chronic depression, anxiety, and post stress–chromatic disorder. Child Abuse, bullying and abusive relationships are all a part of mental abuse.
22. Ragging: Ragging is most common in schools and colleges. Ragging is when a student or a college student is ill treated by his seniors or colleagues, causing him physical or mental harm. Ragging is most peculiar in India, Australia and Sri Lanka. In America, Ragging is known by the term hazing. Most of these nations have made strict norms to handle with the punishable offence of ragging or hazing.
23. Religious Abuse: Religious abuse can be of many types. It includes using the religious teachings for fulfilling wrong purposes. If a person is discriminated on grounds of religion, it is also a part of religious abuse. Violence motivated by illusive religious practice or on the basis of religion is also termed under the category of religious abuse.  Examples of religious abuse are human sacrifice, irritation rites, communal riots, witch hunts etc.
24. Self abuse: Self abuse is yet another type of abuse. In this kind of abuse, a person abuses self. One inflicts physical and mental pain. People abusing drug, indulging is cutting hands etc. This problem is most common in adults and adolescents. One has to take a proper therapy to come out of it. Apart from this, will power and determination are two attributes that can help people come out of self abuse.
25. Stalking: Stalking refers to the situation when an unwanted person follows another person. Stalking can be in real life as well as on cyber space. Stalking is essentially a kind of harassment. In some countries, stalking is considered to be a civil crime while in many other it is a kind of criminal offence.
26. Terrorism: Many people take terrorism to be a whole another issue but the fact is that terrorism is categorized under abuse only. Terrorism can be understood to be a way which uses violence to create fear in the minds of the people to achieve a particular task. The terrorism has increased manifold times in the last few decades.
27. Verbal Abuse: Verbal abuse is the kind of abuse when a person uses improper language for any other person. This type of abuse involves the use of profanities and words that are harmful to a person’s dignity or character. The results of verbal abuse can be low self esteem, dwindling faith in one’s own abilities, depression, emotional torture etc.

There are many other types of abuses. However, one thing that a person needs to keep in his mind is that there are strict laws to deal with all kinds of abuse. If you are a victim of any kind of abuse, it is only advisable that you take legal action against the person who is causing harm to you or who is abusing you in any way. Do not take anything wrong from anyone. Stand for your rights.

Different Types of Butterflies

Butterflies are also god’s one of the most beautiful creation. They different hues and vibrant spirits enlighten the surrounding environment in a completely different manner. They have beautiful pair of wings of different patterns and colors. These wings are attached to the median portion of the body which is called as the thorax which enables them in proper flying. Butterflies do not have any specific habitat. They can be found anywhere, in forests, in gardens or even residential areas. They are in fact omnipresent!

When it comes to different types of butterflies then generally the classification is based on taxonomical basis, that is families and sub families. Members of the same species share common morphological characters. Six main families in United States are

Hesperiidae: They are generally brown coloured skipping butterflies which keeps on jumping from one flower to another. They have big eyes and when they rest their wings are closed. They are also referred by names such as dusky wings, flats, soothywings, skipperlings, flashers, longtails and also cloudywings.

Lycaenidae: These gossamer wing butterflies are small sized. Their most distinguishing feature is their bright blue colour. Coppers, hairstreaks and elfins are also members of this family. The subfamilies are so similar that it is quite difficult to differentiate between them.

Nymphalidae: This is the largest family of butterflies and often referred as brush footed because of the feathery structure of their feet. This family is further divided into subfamilies, genera an d species. The most common feature amongst the member of this family is orange coloured wings with specific patterns. Generally found in forest edges and open fields. Susan, dogbane, loose-strife, milkweed and purple coneflower are their nectar plants while host plant is violet. Common names conferred to this family are ladies, commas, fritillaries, crescents, tortoiseshells, and checkerspots.

Papilionidae: In this family swallowtail butterflies are the most common members. They are characterized by tails which are present at the bottom of the wings. They are found in forests, fields and even roadsides. Often referred as pine vine swallowtails since their host plant is pine vine. Azalea, butterfly bush, honeysuckle, lanta, lilac, phlox, thistle and verbena are their sources of nectar.

Pieridae: The peridae family of white and sulphur refers that the members of this family have primarily white or yellow wings. They are usually found in gardens and are recognized by their colour only. Common example is Cabbage White Butterfly fund in gardens, yards or orchards. Their caterpillar usually feeds on garden vegetables only.  The host plants for these are broccoli, cabbage, nasturtium and mustard and nectar plants are aster, dogbane, dandelion, lantana, milkweed and sunflower. Marbles, orangetips, yellows and dogfaces are also members of this family.

Riodinidae: Their name is so because of their habitat. They are generally found in Southwest or Rio Grande valley. Known as metalmarks they are small brown coloured butterflies.

Common butterflies found in North America and other tropical countries are:

American Painted Lady: Generally inhabit in deserts, mountain areas and meadows. Nectar of butterfly bush, mint, zinnia, and thistle is their common food. Host plants are thistle, pearly everlasting, burdock and wormwood.

European cabbage White: They are usually found in fields, on plants, forests and vegetable gardens. Host plants are broccoli, cabbage, nasturtium and mustard whereas nectar plants are aster, dogbane, dandelion, lantana, milkweed and sunflower.

Monarch: generally found in marshy lands, pen meadows and fields and along road sides. Butterfly bush, cosmos, lilac, lantana, milkweed and mints are their preference when it comes to nectar while their host is milkweed.

Mourning Cloak: They are quite diverse in their habitat. They are found right form forests, to river banks. Nectar is obtained from butterfly bush, cosmos, lilac, lantana, milkweed and mints while ash, elm, poplar and willow are the host plants.

European Cabbage White, Fritillaries, Orange Sulphur and Pine-vine Swallowtails are also included in tropical butterflies which we have already discussed.

Almost five hindered and seventy five different species of butterflies have been reported just in United States. Butterflies are the most beautiful as well as diverse creature found on this planet.

Different Types of Arthritis

Arthritis is growing common as well as severe day by day. If we look at the literal definition of arthritis it refers to inflation of joints. It is a disorder generally pertaining to bones and joints. Joints are junction point of two bones like that of hand, elbow, hip or knees. Arthritis generally causes stiffness, pain, inflammation and often swelling of these joints.  Often these symptoms turn fatal causing muscle, bones and internal and vital organ complications.

There may be many reasons behind acquiring arthritis. These reasons are completely different from each other and mainly depend on the tie of arthritis concerned. Any kind of physical injury leads to osteoarthritis. Gout and pseudo gout are due to imbalanced metabolism.  In case of rheumatoid arthritis lupus erythematosus are caused by infections, hereditary disorder or for any other reasons.

Let’s have a glance at various types of arthritis:

1. Osteoarthritis: also known as degenerative arthritis is mainly due to degeneration of cartilages due to ageing. Osteoarthritis tends to show a steep rise in men after age of 50 and in women after 40.

Causes:

• Mainly it is degenerative in nature and is caused by increasing age. It is generally wear and tear during lifetime that leads to osteoarthritis.
• Obese people are more susceptible to this disorder and particularly in knee joint because of excessive pressure put on that joint.
• Excessive strain on damaged joint also intensifies the condition.
• At times this disease can be inherited from parents also, though frequency is quite low in this tie of arthritis.
• Repetitive injury and often trauma leads to secondary osteoarthritis.

Usual victims are joints are that of hip, knee, spine, hands. The distal and proximal interphalangeal joints of the hands are the most susceptible areas to be struck by osteoarthritis. It also occurs in metacarpophalangeal joints, wrists and ankles.

Symptoms:

Symptoms usually appear at later stages. At early stages osteoarthritis is hardly symptomatic.  At later stages stiff joints is the major symptom. There is pain, swelling and soreness of joints. In severe cases inflammation is also seen. Gradually there is difficulty in movement also.

The major problem is that it is difficult to diagnose since symptoms appear at very late stage. Initially it affects are very few joints. Mostly people take it as signs of ageing and do not undergo proper treatment. The best way is to keep your calcium store in your body pretty intact.

1. 2.       Rheumatoid Arthritis:

This comes under auto immune diseases since it is caused by malfunctioning of one’s own immune system. Almost 1% of American adult population is affected by this type of arthritis. Women are more susceptible to it as compared to men. Usually occurs at an age of 20-50 years. It is called as juvenile rheumatoid arthritis when it strikes children.

Causes:

• Usually occurs due to faulty defence system of one’s body.
• Amount of blood flow increases which causes inflammation in joints. Here synovium which is cell lining around the joint is injured due to body’s own defence mechanism.

The disease is not hereditary. Also it is difficult to diagnose it since symptoms appear at quite late stage.

Symptoms:

Usually joints are affected. Joint inflammation, joints pain, stiffness of joints are common indicative signs. At times swelling is also seen. This causes inability in movement. Joints become stiff and particularly in morning hours. It gradually spreads to nearby tissues and cartilages and causes more and more damage. Since the body’s defence mechanism is affected therefore the brain starts sending wrong signals and therefore the lifespan of the person is shortened.

1. 3.       Psoriatic arthritis

Usually found in people affected by skin disorder like psoriasis. Usually patients with tissue type HLA –B27 are more prone to this. All in all there are five types of clinical patterns of psoriatic arthritis.

Asymmetrical mono- and oligoarticular arthritis is the most common form occurring in almost 30-50% cases followed by symmetrical polyarticular arthritis. Third one is distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint involvement having a frequency of almost 25%. Usually nails are affected in this type. Then the most deadly and dangerous form is Arthritis mutilans. This can extend over years casing severe damage. Last one is Axial Arthritis which is quite different as compared to normal psoriatic arthritis. It usually occurs as spondylitis affecting the spine or as sacro illitis.

Causes:

• Generally genetic makeup plays an important role here, and hence the disease is hereditary.
• Surrounding environment is also responsible. Infection of Streptococcus species can lead to serious consequences such as guttate psoriasis.
• Even HIV aggravates the arthritis.

1. 4.       Gout:

It is perhaps the most painful form of arthritis. A misconception with this disease is that it is usually found in upper strata of society owing to the rich quality of food that they consume.

Causes:

• Usually the reason is deposition of monosodium urate crystals in the body due to uric acid concentration they deposit in the joints thereby causing abnormality.
• When small toes are affected then the main reason is some previous injury. This leads to hampered blood circulation thereby causing gout.
• Excessive breakdown of purines in liver by hepatic enzymes also causes gout.

Symptoms:

Mainly the bigger toe is affected with sudden bursts of pain.  Even joints of ankle, hip, elbow, heel, knee, fingers are affected.. In extreme conditions even the smaller toe is also affected.

Kidney efficiency is also lowered leading to kidney stones.

In acute cases redness, soreness, swelling and inflammation is also observed.

Gout is generally treated with anti inflammatory drugs. Corticosteroids can be injected into the affected are or give in form of pills.  But the most quickest and effective healing source Colchicine.

1. 5.       CPDD or Pseudogout:

Calcium phosphate crystals deposit in the joints causing CPDD or Calcium Pyrophosphate Dihydrate Deposition Disease (CPPD).  Symptoms are quite similar to gout and therefore it is often confused with gout and is thus called pseudogout.

1. 6.       Fibromyalgia

Here joints are not affected but soft tissues like tendons, ligaments and tendons are struck upon.

Symptoms:

• Excessiveness weariness
• Insomnia
• Muscle tenderness

1. 7.       Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

It is also one type of auto immune disease. Usually 90% of women are victims especially the ine’s who are expecting.

Symptoms:

Anaemia, Arthritis, dizziness, hair fall, fever, ulcers and skin disorders are few of the indicative signs.  One’s circulatory system is affected. Joints and kidney’s functions are also disturbed. Nervous system does not function properly. Skin problems are also observed.

1. 8.       Septic Arthritis:

Also known as infectious arthritis is majorly caused by pathogens like bacteria, virus and fungi. These pathogens mainly attack the joint cavity containing few WBC and synovial fluid. The frequency of this type of arthritis generally increases with advancing age.   Causative agent is Streptococcus aureus. Chronic septic arthritis is caused by Myobacterium species as well as fungus Candida Albicans.

Symptoms:

Acute pain, swelling are indicative signs. But the most common symptom is chills and fever.

Types of infectious Arthritis:

• Septic Arthritis caused by bacterial infection
• Tuberculosis basically seen in tuberculosis patients
• Fungal Arthritis occurring due to fungal invasion
• Gonococcal arthritis majorly seen in gonorrhoeal patients
• Viral arthritis due to viral infection

1. 9.       Bursitis and Tendonitis

This type of arthritis has majorly inflammatory symptoms which causes stiffnes and disability in movement.

Symptoms:

Inflammation and filling up of bursa sacs which help in movement of tendons and muscles across the bones in case of bursitis.

In tendonitis swelling of tendons as well as elastic issue in between the muscles and bones occur.

Tenosynovitis is a condition where inflammation of tendon sheath occurs.

1. 10.   Ankylosing Spondylitis

Usually men aged between 16 to 35 have the tendency to acquire this disorder. It has been noticed that usually the spondylitis patients have a genetic marker HLA B27 which makes them prone to this.

Here fusion of vertebrae occurs thereby causing the spinal cord to become rigid. Gradually it reaches the adjoining tissues and stiffness and pain in the lower half of the body.

1. 11.   Reactive Arthritis:

Also referred as Reiter’s syndrome. Basically joints are inflammated. Most susceptible areas are those around tendons and ligaments. Problems in uterus and prostrate are seen. At times cervix is also affected. Conjunctivitis in eyes is a common symptom.  In acute cases cysts and skin soreness is seen.

1. 12.   Sjogren’s Syndrome

Dryness in salivary glands and lacrimal glands are observed due to inability to produce moisture in these glands.

1. 13.   Osteoporosis

Usually it is observed in old age and particularly in women. Here bones become soft and brittle thus having a tendency to break off very easily. Bone tissues are also weakened increasing the chances of fractures and breaks.

1. 14.   Carpal tunnel Syndrome

This can be sudden or creep in gradually.  Initially fingers are affected with little bit of itchiness and lack of sensation. Afterwards due to stress on wrist the median nerve is also affected.

1. 15.   Juvenile arthritis:

Usually children are struck upon by this type of arthritis. There are no defined symptoms for this type of arthritis and hence there are different modes of diagnosis also. The patients should be a carrier of this for 6 consecutive weeks so as to be properly diagnosed. The three main type of juvenile arthritis are

• pauciarticular which affects very few joints
• polyarticular  which involves several joints
• systematic having an impact on the entire body

As we can see there are many types of arthritis with numerous symptoms. Different people have different levels of susceptibility to these many types. So it is very important that one should learn how to control them. Try your best to gain control over your type of arthritis rather than letting the arthritis gaining access over your own body. Take a proper diet and develop good sleeping habits. It is also important that you exercise on a regular basis.

Different Types of Bacteria

When it comes to diversity then microorganisms are the best example to support. Amongst these bacteria are the most diversified creatures of all. Their variety is maximum as compared to any living from on this planet. Don’t go by their size, they are hardly visible by naked eye, aid of a microscope is mandatory. But you can find them in every nook and corner. Be it soil, water or air, the miscellany is abundant. Because of this multiplicity there have been various criteria to classify these organisms. Bacteria have been classified on the basis of numerous aspects into smaller groups. This classification has helped in their much finer studies. Also it has become pretty convenient to arrange them in taxonomical order. Phylogenetic relationship is also derived from this classification only. Species lying under the same group have a common ancestor, while the one’s lying in separate group are distantly related.

Classification of bacteria is done mainly on the basis of either their morphological feature which mainly includes shape, or physiological activities, or even biochemical activities. At times their staining habits as well as growth conditions are also taken into account. DNA information also plays a crucial role in their taxonomical organization. Generally bacteria are classified into phylums.

Classification on the basis of shape:

This is the most basic type of classification and is generally done on the basis of their external appearance that is their shape.

• Rod shaped called as bacilli. They can be both gram positive and negative.

Example: E.Coli, Salmonella. Also the most deadly botulism causing Clostridium and anthrax causing Bacillus anthracis belong to this form only.

• Spherical shaped called as cocci. They may live individually or are found in chains and bunches. They are usually gram positive. At times they can be helpful to environment.

Example: Staphylococcus aureus which causes skin infection and food poisoning and Streptococcus pyogenes causing throat and tonsil related problems come under this category.

• Spiral shaped called as spirilla.  They are usually cork screw shaped gram negative bacteria.

Example: Syphilis causing Treponema and Borellia which causes Lymph’s disease are usually spiral shaped.

Classification on the basis of physiological activity

Bacteria are organized into two major groups on the basis of need of oxygen for survival.

One who entirely depends on oxygen for their survival is known as Aerobic bacteria, while the ones who cannot tolerate oxygen at all are called as Anaerobic bacteria. Anaerobic bacteria are usually found in places where there is scarcity of oxygen, as in deep down the earth, or marshy areas, or even underwater.

Classification on the basis of staining methods

On the ability of acquiring dye the bacteria are classified as either gram positive or gram negative bacteria. Group of bacteria which take up crystal violet dye and retain blue or violet colour in gram staining protocol are Gram Positive Bacteria while the one’s which do not take up this dye and instead take up the counter stain safranin and appear pink or red are called as Gram Negative Bacteria. It is because of the thick peptidoglycan wall that gram positive bacteria are able to retain the dye; in case of gram negative bacteria they have an extra thick wall through which the dye is unable to penetrate in.

Classification on the basis of mode of living

This is the most important type of classification since it takes into account the entire mode of living of bacteria. The way they grow, survive and reproduce, all of this forms the base of this classification. Here also there are two important groups:

Autotrophs: Their carbon source is directly from the atmosphere that is the carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere.  They utilize the sunlight as well as carbon dioxide so as to produce sugar which is their mode of energy.

Heterotrophs: They do not tap in natural resources like sunlight and carbon dioxide so as to fulfil their energy requirement. Instead they obtain their sugar resources or carbon resources from their surrounding environment or living forms in readymade form.

Classification on the basis of environment

Some can survive in extreme of the conditions and are called Extremophiles. While the one who can live in moderate conditions are called as Mesophiles or Neutrophiles.

Acidophilic bacteria can reside in very low ph condition as low as 3 or below whereas Alkaliphiles can tolerate high ph upto 9 or above.

Thermophilic bacteria can survive in temperatures as high as 60-80⁰C, and Psychrophiles similarly can bear temperature as low as -15⁰C.

Halophiles are bacteria that can tolerate high saline conditions, and in the same way Osmophiles can bear up with high sugar osmotic conditions.

Classification on the basis of phyla

This is the most extensive type of classification and here different types of bacteria are grouped into different phyla on the basis of their similarity in morphology as well as also DNA sequencing is also taken into account. There are in total 15 phyllas which are further divided into species and genus.

1) Aquificae
2) Xenobacteria
3) Fibrobacter
4) Bacteroids
5) Firmicutes
6) Planctomycetes
7) Chrysogenetic
Cyanobacteria
9) Thermomicrobia
10) Chlorobia
11) Proteobacteria
12) Spirochaetes
13) Flavobacteria
14) Fusobacteria
15) Verrucomicrobia

Rickettsia: They are also unique type of bacteria. They have many features of viruses and that is the reason why they can’t survive outside a living cell, for them a host is mandatory. They are usually gram negative cocci. Their main vectors are ticks, fleas and lice and they are the pathogens for Rocky Mountain and typhus fever.

Mycoplasma: They are cell wall lacking bacilli or cocci form of bacteria. This property makes them resistant to antibiotics which mainly targets the cell wall.

Examples: Mycoplasma pneumonia which is the causative agent for respiratory disease and Mycolasma genitalium responsible for pelvic disorders both come under this category.

We can see there is so much diversity in the kingdom of bacteria. With their evolving capability bacteria can survive even in the harshest of the harsh conditions and that is the reason why their number is the highest on this planet.

Different Types of Soil

A thin layer of material in which plants have their root and are on earth surface is known as soil. It consist of many things such as decayed plant weathered rock and animal matter. It takes a long period of time to be formed. When there is interaction of many things such as air, water, plant life, animal life, chemicals and rocks then there is formation of soil, which can take 1000 years or even more. Usually soil is different from one location to another, but organic and inorganic materials, water and air are present in it.

Sand, clay and silt, are the basic types of soil. Generally most of the soils are made up of combination of the three. Apart from these three soils there are three more types of soil, which are loamy, peaty, chalky soils. The classification of soils is based on the size of the particles it consists of. The texture, as how the soil feels or looks like, depend upon the ratio of each one of the type of soil present in that particular soil. Variation in soil is from place to place on our planet and this variation can also be from place to place in our backyard too. Further we will discuss these soil types in more details.

Sandy Soil

Its light weight and grainy texture puts it into light categories. Growing of plant in sandy soil requires water regularly in summers and in winters with some time intervals whereas in rainy season it retains moisture as well as nutrients.

Texture - It comprises of tiny pieces of rock .05 to 2mm in diameter with gritty texture.  As it’s the lightest soil so it is easily prone to wind and water erosion if there is no plant on it.

Porosity – Due to major content of sand, it is highly absorbent. It is often called as “hungry soil” because it need water at short intervals and immediately dries up also.

Nutrients - It is acidic type of soil, which suitable for most of the plants, but its lacking of nutrients put a hold on it. Mixing organic matters as manures can provide nutrients to plants for growing on this soil.

In a nutshell sandy soil is good for plants as it is permeable and allows water to pass, so that it does not accumulate near the roots and let them to decay.

Clay Soil

They are typically consisting of 0-45% sand, 0-45% silt and 50-100% clay by volume. When they are dry they become difficult to work with as they become heavy.

Texture - When this type of soil is dry they form rock-hard clots and on other hand when they are wet they are lumpy, sticky and pliable.

Porosity - Clay soil have the capacity to hold a lot of water, its drainage is very low, which can even harm the roots as water get accumulated due to low drainage.

Nutrients – It is alkaline type of soil. Some plants prefer it while others don’t as they prefer acidic type of soil. We can acidify the soil by adding composted oak leaves, peat moss, cottonseed meal, elemental sulfur, vinegar, gypsum and ammonium phosphate.

They are best compounds for vegetable or flower garden when they are combined with other types of soil.

Silt Soil

This is one of the most fertile soils. It is granular material derived from soil or rock. It can be easily transported by air in form of dust or through water or other liquid.

Texture - When it is dry it look like dark sand and it is slippery and smooth when it’s wet; the particles in it are much smaller than that of sand, which can only be seen through microscope, but are larger than clay.

Porosity - Can hold more moisture and some times become compact. It holds better drainage than clay as it has slightly lager particles than clay. Comparatively it will have less porosity than sandy soil as silt will fill the gaps between the sand particles.

Nutrients - It is composed of minerals as Quartz, feldspar and fine organic particles it consist of more nutrients than sandy soil.

This soil is often find in river estuaries as its fine particles are washed downstream and deposited when the flow of water is slow.

Loamy soil

It is considered to be the type of soil which is ideal for cultivation. It has a combination of 40% sand, 40% silt and 20% clay.

Texture - Its texture is gritty which consist of small silt and clay particles and large shapes and sizes of sand and organic particles.

Porosity - They hold moderate level of moisture. It holds more water than sand which almost lacks ability to retain water and comparatively less water than clay, which have the tendency to get saturated.

Nutrients - Comparatively it has highest level of organic matter which makes it very nutritious. To make soil loamy mix sand silt and clay along with plenty of organic matters such as animal manure, compost or turned over crops.

They are a bit heavier than sandy soil, but with fairly free draining, again, because of low organic content.

Peaty soils

These types of soil are formed in moors, pocosins, mire, muskegs, wetland bogs and peat swamp forests. Around 60%of the worlds’ wetland is peat.

Porosity - They maintain moisture in soil when it is dry and also prevent he extra amount of water to accumulate, resulting in decaying of rots.

Nutrients - Formed by accumulation of dead and decayed organic matter. When peat is mixed into the soil its structure and acidity is increased. It can store nutrients though it is not fertile itself.

If there is perfect management and proper use of fertilizers and artificial drainage then excellent plants can be grown

Chalky soil

They are of extremely poor quality and need continuous assistance through addition of fertilizers and other soil improvers.

Texture - It has small pieces of white chalk in it. Its bright brown in colour, contain large quantity of stones of various sizes.

Porosity - This type of soil become dry very soon in summers and is not good for plantation. Adding organic maters will boost their water-holding ability.

Nutrients - They are alkaline. They have chalk layer below them, they constitute a lot of flints. Magnesium deficiency is common on chalky soils.

This soil’s fertility depends on depth of the soil. Potatoes should not be grown on these types of soil.

Different Types of Cancer

A few decades back, cancer was a rarely known disease. People did not even know about what cancer was. It is because, till a few decades back, cancer was a rare disease. However, with the change in lifestyle, the increase in global warming, pollution hazards etc. the incidents of cancer have also started increasing. The good part is that medical science has made much progress. If detected in early stage, cancer can be treated. There is no definite cure but a person can still live a long life, if he takes his medicines regularly and take proper precautions. Here is a list of different types of cancer that exist in human body types:

Bladder Cancer

Bladder is that organ of the body that stores urine. The cancer that affects the bladder is known as Bladder Cancer. There are three types of bladder cancers:

a.) Transitional Cell Carcinoma: This type of cancer affects the cells that form the inner lining of the bladder. Once these cells are affected, they soon pass the disease to the other cells and that is how the whole bladder is engulfed by the cancer.

b.) Squamous Cell Carcinoma: In this type of cancer, the virus affects the thin and flat cells of the bladder first and soon the cancer spreads everywhere.

c.) Adenocarcinoma: Yet another type of cancer is the adenocarcinoma. This type of cancer affects the cells that are essentially secretary in function. These types of cells secrete mucus and other fluids which are needed within the bladder. Once these cells are affected, the secretion becomes hampered and eventually, the cancer engulfs the entire bladder.

Some probable signs of bladder cancer include- blood discharge in the urine, pain during urination, frequent urination or even the inability to pass urine. The treatment of the bladder cancer will depend largely on how much of your bladder has been affected. Electrocautery, Immunotherapy, chemotherapy, Cystectomy etc. are some of the possible treatments for the bladder cancer.

Breast Cancer

Breast Cancer affects the human breasts. Depending on the area from where it originates, it is of two types:

a.) Ductal Carcinomas: When the cancer first affects the milk ducts of the breasts and increases from there, it is known as Ductal Carcinomas.

b.) Lobular Carcinomas: The lobules are responsible for supplying the milk to the ducts. When the cancer affects these lobules first, it is known as Lobular Breast Cancer.

The statistics showed that in 2008, breast cancer alone took 458,503 lives. The chances of breast cancer are far more in women than in men. However, it is easier to detect breast cancer in women than in men due to visible signs. The causes of breast cancer may be any of these- age, sex, lack of childbearing or breast- feeding, race, economic status (the standard of living), deficiencies etc. Tobacco smoking also increases the vulnerability to breast cancer.  Stage 1 cancers are easy to handle and are treated with lumpectomy and sometimes even radiation. Stage 2 and stage 3 cancer are treated by surgery, lumpectomy or mastectomy, chemotherapy and radiation. While the stage 4 breast cancer (metastatic cancer- cancer which has spread far too much already) is treated by a combination of all the above therapies, along with targeted therapies. Regular exercising decreases the chances of breast cancer. A recent study showed that women can reduce the chances of getting breast cancer by drinking less alcohol, maintaining an appropriate body weight and by breast feeding her children.

Colon and Rectal Cancer

Colon and rectum are two parts of the large intestine. While Colon is the largest part of the large intestine, rectum is the end part of it. The cancer that affects the colon and rectum respectively is known as Colon Cancer or Colon Carcinoma and Rectal Carcinoma. Mostly, colon carcinoma is adenocarcinoma i.e. the cancer that spreads from the cells that release mucus and other fluids within the large intestine. The general symptoms of this cancer resemble the symptoms of a number of other diseases as well. Thus, the colon and rectum cancer can only be identified in the metastases phase when the cancer has already affected the body parts. Some of the causes of the colon and rectum cancer is – age, heredity, smoking, physical inactivity, inflammatory bowel disease, environmental factors, excessive alcohol consumption etc. The treatment of colon and rectum cancer also depends on the stage in which the cancer has entered. However, the treatment will usually be one of these therapies or the combination of these therapies- Chemotherapy, Radiation therapy, Immunotherapy etc. Apart from this, surgery also often proves to be helpful. It has also been claimed that aspirin reduces the risk of colon and rectum cancer. A vaccine names TroVax is being tested. It may come out as a possible cure to initial stage colon and rectum cancer. Similarly, another drug named Cimetidine is being researched upon in Japan. This drug has also been claimed to be a cure for colorectal cancer.

Endometrial Cancer

Endometrial Cancer, also known as the Uterine Cancer, is the cancer that affects the inner lining of cells that makes the uterus (uterus is the small pear shaped organ in a woman’s body where the fetus develops). The endometrial cancer is mostly adenocarcinomal in origin (that is it first affects those cells of the endometrial lining that are basically secretary in function). Endometrial Cancer caused approximately about 8,000 deaths in 2010. The symptoms of Uterine Cancer include vaginal bleeding, excessive uterine bleeding, anemia, lower or abdominal pain, thin white discharge in women after the menopause. High levels of estrogen production, obesity, hypertension, infertility, diabetes, excessive consumption of animal fat, breast cancer, ovular cancer etc. are some of the factors that increase the chances of endometrial cancer in a person. The most basic treatment of endometrial cancer is surgery. Surgery includes abdominal hysterectomy and removal of both the ovaries. Radiation Therapy, Chemotherapy, hormonal therapy is also used to treat cancer. Lymphadenectomy is also a type of surgery in which lymph nodes are removed. Herceptin, is a chemical drug, that has been fairly successful in treating initial stage endometrial cancer. The chances and survival rate of endometrial cancer patient also varies with race and region. For instance, the chances of endometrial cancer are 40% more in Caucasian women than in the women of any other region. Similarly, an African woman is more likely to die of uterine cancer than a woman suffering from same cancer type and belonging to another nation.

Kidney (Renal Cell Cancer)

Kidney or renal cancer is the cancer that originates in the kidney. There are two types of kidney cancer:

a.) Renal Cell Carcinoma: The kidney has extremely small tubules. These tubules throw away the waste and filter the blood. When the cancer affects these cells, it is known as the renal cell carcinoma.

b.) Renal Pelvis Carcinoma: In the centre of the kidney, the urine is collected and it is from here that the process of filtration begins. When the cancer begins from these portions, it is called as the renal pelvis cancer.

Wills Tumor is also a type of kidney cancer that occurs in children below the age of 5. Other less common types of kidney cancer are- squamous cell carcinoma, juxtaglomerular cell carcinoma, Angiomyolipoma, Bellini duct carcinoma, mesoblastic carcinoma etc. Treatment of kidney cancer depends the type of cancer as well as the stage. Renal Carcinoma is resistant to both radiation and chemotherapy. These therapies do not work in case of renal cancer. In the advanced stages, the treatment comprises of targeted therapy. Nephrectomy is yet another option.

Leukemia

Leukemia or the blood cancer is a type of cancer that affects the blood cell or the bone marrow, the organ where blood cells are produced. In case of Leukemia, the production of the white blood cells becomes abnormally more. In 2000, approximately 2, 56,000 people developed some form of leukemia and 209,000 lost their lives due to it. Leukemia is a of a number of different types- lymphocytic leukemia, mylogenous leukemia, hairy cell leukemia, T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia, large granular lymphocytic leukemia, adult T-cell leukemia. Signs or symptoms of leukemia include a decrease in the number of blood platelets and hence, a decreased tendency of blood clotting, decline in immunity, frequent infections like tonsils, sores in the mouth, diarrhea, anemia, weight loss etc. Though one can still notice the symptoms, the causes of leukemia are relatively unknown. Different types of leukemia are caused due to different reasons. The treatment of leukemia includes medication, chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Another treatment for leukemia is bone marrow transplant. The treatment of leukemia is being worked upon. As of now, there is no sure vaccine or medication that can avoid leukemia. However, hopes are high that eventually, with time, some or the other cure will be discovered.

Lung Cancer

Lung Cancer is a kind of cancer when the growth of the cells of the lungs becomes abnormal. Metastasis is that stage of lung cancer when the cancer has reached beyond the lungs and has started to affect other organs also. There are two different types of cell carcinomas- small cell lung carcinoma and non small cell lung carcinoma. The treatment involved in both the cases is also different. In case of small cell lung carcinoma, chemotherapy and radiation works best. In case of non- small cell carcinomas, surgery works best. The survival rate in case of lung cancer patients varies from person to person. However, the chances of five year long survival rate are 14%. The signs and symptoms of lung cancer include dyspnea, hemoptysis, chronic coughing, wheezing, chest pain, dysphonia, clubbing, dysphagia etc. The primary cause of lung cancer is the prevalence of carcinogens, ionizing radiation in the atmosphere. The constant exposure to these harmful elements causes changes in the DNA. The change and the cancer begin from single cells and eventually engulf the entire lung. Smoking is also responsible for causing lung cancer. As a matter of fact, it is the most common cause. Other harmful infective agents include- radon gas, asbestos, viruses and the particulate matter. In 2004, lung cancer was responsible for taking 1.3 million lives all over the world.

Melanoma

Melanocytes are the cells that make the pigment, melanin. Melanoma is the cancer that affects the melanocytes. Melanoma usually begins with a mole. However, it can also begin from any other organ that produces the pigment like the eye or the intestines. The symptoms of melanoma can be one or many of these- asymmetrical mole, irregular borders of the mole, variegated color, an increase in the diameter of the mole regularly etc. There are many different kinds of melanoma. Some of the types are as follows- Lentigo maligna melanoma, superficial spreading melanoma, acral lentiginious melanoma, mucosal and nodular melanoma, polypoid melanoma, desmoplastic melanoma, soft -tissue melanoma etc. Unfortunately, there is no blood test that can prove the evolution of melanoma. The only way to detect melanoma is to notice the visible signs. The treatment of melanoma includes a number of therapies like the chemotherapy, adjuvant therapy, immunotherapy, lento maligna treatment, targeted therapies etc. Surgery is also a good option. Melanoma is more frequent in women than in men. According to a survey conducted by the World Health Organisation, about 48000 deaths occur due to melanoma each year.

Pancreatic Cancer

When the pancreases catch the cancer, it is known as the pancreatic cancer. It is also known as the Exocrine Cancer. It is so because endocrine pancreatic cancer cases are far less in number than the pancreatic exocrine cancer cases. About 95% of pancreatic cancer is essentially adenocarcinogenic in origin. The rest 5% can be adenosquamous, hepatoid, and colloid in origin. The symptoms of pancreatic cancer include- pain in the upper abdomen, loss of appetite, weight loss, jaundice, clinical depression etc. The risk factors for pancreatic cancer i.e. the factors that increases the risk of pancreatic cancer in a person are age, sex, smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, obesity, chronic pancreatitis, heredity etc. Endoscopic needle biopsy is used to diagnose pancreatic cancer. Treatment includes only the surgery and chemotherapy. The Whipple procedure is most commonly used to treat pancreatic cancer. Chemotherapy essentially helps a person to stay a comparatively better life. It only increases the survival rate.

Prostate Cancer

Prostate is a gland in the male reproductive system. It lies just beneath the bladder and in front of the rectum. This type of cancer is more common in old men. In United States of America, approximately 32,050 people were killed due to prostate cancer in 2010. The cases of prostate cancer vary with region. For instance, the instances of prostate cancer are quite less in men of South and East Asian Countries. On the other hand, the risk of developing prostate cancer is quite high in European and American men. Heredity and Diet, medication exposure, viral are some of the other factors that increase the chances of prostate cancer. The symptoms of prostate cancer can be any of these or even none of these- frequent urination, hematuria, painful urination etc. Prostate Cancer is often detected through a biopsy. The treatment includes one of these therapies or a combination of two or more of these therapies- hormonal therapy, chemotherapy, cryosurgery etc. There are a lot of things that determine the quality of life of a prostate cancer patient. The type of therapy to be chosen depends on the initial response of the body to the treatment.

Thyroid Cancer

Thyroid Cancer is classified according to their hispathological traits. On the basis of this classification, there e are four main types of thyroid cancer. These are- Papillary thyroid cancer, Follicular thyroid cancer, Medullary thyroid cancer, Anaplastic thyroid cancer etc. The symptoms of the thyroid cancer include a node in the thyroid region of the neck; pain the anterior parts of the neck, changes in voice etc. Thyroid Cancer , in its metastases stage will require surgery. Surgeries used to treat thyroid cancer are thyroidectomy, lobectomy and tracheotomy. Radioactive-131 is a chemical salt that is used to treat patients of thyroid cancer. However, this iodine-131 does not work in case of patients suffering from medullary and anaplastic thyroid cancer.

Different Types of Love

Love is the most incredible feeling in this world. There is absolutely nothing that compares to being in love. Kahlil Gibran once very rightly said,” Love has no desire but to fulfill itself. To melt and be like a running brook that sings its melody to the night. To wake at dawn with a winged heart and give thanks for another day of loving.” To love and to be loved is the prime motif of life. Though love is a universal feeling and an eternal experience, people over the centuries have tried to categories into many different types. Based on the Greek Classification, the different types of love are:

Agape

Agape is supposed to be the most beautiful kind of love. In this love, a person is more willing to give rather than take and desires to sacrifice himself for the good of his loved one. A mother’s love for her children, a wife’s love for her husband, God’s love for his followers etc. is usually the Agape kind of love. Agape love has been referred to and explained in the Biblical passage known as the “love chapter”. Agape love is supposed to be the self-less and purest form of love.

Eros

Eros love has desires. It has wants. It is not self-less. This type of love seeks to have pleasure in a bond. “Eros” when translated literally means “intimate love”. Plato defined the word “Eros” with his own interpretation. He said that though this kind of love initially begins with an attraction, it eventually becomes an expression of appreciation. To explain it better, Plato said that Eros love is the kind of love where a lover starts to love the beauty of the one he loves more than the person itself. Plato did not attach any attributes of physical attraction to the Eros love. The poets have, over the centuries, tried to discover beauty by making use of Eros love.

Philia

Philia means the love between the friends or brothers. The concept of Philia was developed by Aristotle. Aristotle defined Philia as a kind of dispassionate but honor love which lays its foundation on virtues like loyalty and commitment. In ancient texts, philia was used to refer to a kind of love that prevailed between the families, between the people of a kingdom etc.

Storge

When translated to English, the word “storge” means “affection”. This is the most general kind of love. It does not have any distinguishing feature. Storge is referred to a kind of love that exists between the members of a family or the love that may evolve out of affection for a person. This kind of love has not been discussed much in Greek Literature.

Apart from the Greek Literature, you will discover that there are more kinds of love than the ones defined above. Some of the different types of love, based on various modes of categorization are as follows:

Pragma

It is a type of love that seeks compatibility in a relationship. In pragma love, a person tries to find a partner with whom his mental suitability is good. This type of love considers the realistic and practical needs over idealism.

Ludus

This is a kind of love where a lover only wants to have fun and pleasure out of a relationship. His intents are not serious and he does not wish to pursue a relationship for life. Here the most important thing is to get the one you love, make you love back. Its about conquering and winning, just like in a game.

Mania

Mania is a highly compulsive type of love. It can actually be even referred to as madness. In this kind of love, a person simply goes mad after the person they love and will go to any extent to get them. This form of love often takes a shrewd form when feelings like jealousy, over-possessiveness etc. enter in the relationship. One should always avoid getting into a maniac relationship. It is capable of doing you and your loved one much harm.

Passionate Love

Passionate love is a kind of love where the passion to unite with your lover is above everything else. The passion you feel for your partner is like a burning fire. This kind of love includes feelings like a desire to know that person, sexual and emotional attraction, studying the person, trying to understand him better.

Compassionate Love

Compassionate love is the love that you feel for people with whom you are deeply attached. This kind of love does not necessarily have any wants or desires. This is a general kind of affection and goodwill.

Love cannot be defined and can never be categorized. There is no single definition that will prove or define what exactly love is. Love unites in itself, a plethora of emotions. However, an effort on the part of scholars and researchers has made it easier to understand love in its many varied and different forms.

Different Types of Art

Art, over the centuries, has been the most incredibly successful method of depicting emotions, sharing stories and expressing oneself. Early incidents of rack cave paintings prove that even our ancestors indulged in drawing paintings to express their feelings, emotions, rituals etc. With time, the art evolved and took many different many forms. Today, there are so many different types of arts. The branches are so many that it is extremely difficult to include each of them in a single article. However, an effort has been made to make this article extremely informative by including all the different types of art.

The different types of art are as follows:

Carving

Carving essentially means sketching something on a solid piece of object. Carving can be of many different types- bone carving, chip carving, gourd carving, ice carving, ivory carving, meat carving, rock carving or petroglyph, stone carving, wood carving etc. Carving can be considered to be the oldest form of art.

Painting

Painting is a form of art that uses paint, color or pigment to draw things on anything. A brush is the most commonly used thing to apply the paint, pigment or color. However, other things may also be used at times. Paintings can be realistic, photographic, abstract, symbolic, political etc. in expression. Religion has always dominated as a subject of painting. Based on the kind of paint used, painting is of many types- oil, acrylic, pastel, watercolor, ink, hot-wax, fresco, enamel, Gouache, Tempera etc. Based on the era in which it was created and which it depicts, a painting may belong to any of these movements- Modernism, Impressionism, outsider art, photorealism, surrealism, Baroque, Orphism, Orientalism etc.

Sculpture

A Sculpture is defined as the process of giving shape and meaning to a hard object. This hard object that is molded into a specific shape can be any of these- rock, marble, metal, glass, wood etc. At times, softer materials like plastic, textiles, polymers etc. There are a number of steps evolved in making a sculpture. A hard material may first need to be carved out of a solid object, then be hardened by firing, molding or casting and finally assembled by wielding. In the end, paint will have to be applied. There are many different types of sculptures- sound sculpture, light sculpture, relief (a sculpture attached to a background), site-specific art, Kinetic sculpture, statue, architectural sculpture etc.

Architecture

Architecture is a very vast term and includes a number of small processes. Architecture is the art of erecting buildings, monuments etc. It can also be referred to as the style or the method of erecting buildings or other physical structures. Architecture has been an important thing since the very evolution of civilization. Each town was planned in a particular architectural fashion. It is for this reason that architectural works are considered to be cultural, historical and political symbols and are considered to be a piece of art. There are ten different architectural styles grouped into four different categories:

a.) Modern, High-tech and Post-Modern

b.) East Asian, South Asian and Spanish Islamic

c.) Gothic and Gothic revival

d.) Classical and Classical revival

Printmaking

Printmaking is a form of art which involves making paintings, designs, and sketch on anything, especially paper, by printing. Prints are created by transferring ink from a matrix or any other instrument to an object. The commonly used matrixes are metal plates, copper or zinc plates, polymer plates, stone, aluminum plates, wooden blocks etc. There are many different types of print making techniques- relief, intaglio, planographic, stencil etc. Different types of printmaking are woodcut, engraving, etching, Mezzotint, Aquatint, Drypoint, Lithography, screen printing, monotype, monoprinting, Foil Imaging, digital prints etc.

Ceramics

A ceramic is an inorganic, non-matallic solid that is made by first heating and then cooling the object. The earliest examples of ceramic form of art are pottery made out of clay. There are many different types of ceramic products:

a.) Structural: These include bricks, pipes, floors, tiles etc.

b.) Refractories: These include gas fire radiant, steel and glass making crucibles.

c.) Whitewares: These include tableware, sanitary products, pottery products etc.

d.) Technical Ceramics: These include products made out of advanced ceramic techniques. These include space shuttle programs, biomedical implants, nozzles, ballistic protection etc. Making these technical ceramics require a lot of skill and training. This is an extremely advanced field that needs proper education in engineering.

Ceramics material is of two types- crystalline and non-crystalline.

Photography

The first portable camera was made by Johann Zahn in 1685. At that time, there was no technique to develop the pictures. It was only in 1724, that Johann Heinrich Schultz created a camera through which pictures could be developed. Since its very invention, camera has been very useful to people. Photography is defined as the art of creating pictures by recording radiation on a radiation sensitive medium. A photograph can be of four different types- black and white, colored, full-spectrum or infra-red and digital. Photography is an important art form. A photograph speaks a lot in itself. Throughout the centuries, photographs have been used to depict histories. This is an important form of art from both the historical as well as the entertainment purposes.

Visual Arts

Visual Arts is a form of art when an artist uses visual media (images, signs and symbols) and various other technological advances to his advantage. They use this medium to communicate with a large audience. Most of the types of arts that have been discussed above are visual arts.

The above classification or categorization of art has been done on the basis of a number of different criterions. Another classification of art is also done on the basis of the era in which it was created. Based on this form of classification, these are different the different types of art:

Abstract Art

This form of art intends to create something that is totally unidentifiable. Famous people who practiced this form are Pablo Picasso, Piet Mondrian, and Jackson Pollock etc.

Impressionism

This art form began in the 19th century. In this type of art form, an artist focused on how light affected a painting during different times of a day. The artists used practices that were different from the clichéd practices. Monet and Renoir are the famous artists who used this kind of art.

Expressionism

Expressionism began in the 20th century. This form of art intends to convey emotions through art. In this kind of art, the object that the artist makes is very oddly formed and intends to convey a unique emotion. Marc Chagall and Edward Munch are famous artists who take Expressionism to its peak.

Romanticism

Romanticism began in the 18th century. The most peculiar part in the romantic arts is the prominent role that nature and environment plays. In this kind of art from, feelings and emotions are depicted in a realistic form and may often be set against the backdrop of nature. Famous Romanticist painters were William Blake and Thomas Cole.

Pointillism

In this kind of art, numerous tiny dots add up to make a complete image. Pointillism is a nineteenth century concept. Vincent Van Gogh is considered to be the most famous pointillist.

Art Nouveau

This art form originated in France. In this form of art, a painting is drawn with an intention to give it a very flowy look. This art form was largely inspired by nature, especially the floral designs.

Cubism

In this kind of art form, the objects being shown in a painting are given geometrical appearances. This art form developed in the later 19th and early 20th century. Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque are famous cubists.

Realism

Realism evolved in the 19th century. This form of art focused on producing images as they were. The objective was to show things that existed in real. One can see realism in the works of Gustave, Abbott, John Singer Sargent and McNeil Whistler

Different Types of Apples

Apples are perhaps the most ancient and most popular fruit till date. Many old legends even have their description, just like the very famous Adam and Eve tale. Initially apples were used as deserts since they helped in proper digestion. They can be even cooked, baked or used for making ciders. Apples are biological member of the family Rosaceae and class Magnoliopsida. The oldest and perhaps the first species of apple known to be originated was Malus sieversii. It originated in Kazakhstan a place in Central Asia. Here the apples are usually called Alma since their place of origin is known as ata-alma which means “father of all apples”.

Apples have high fiber content which in turns improves digestion. They have low fat, cholesterol and sodium profile. Hence the saying “an apple a day keeps the doctor away” is truly justified. Almost 80% of the world population consumes apples. So it doesn’t stop us to know all the more about apples. You may be surprised to know that there is not a single form of apples, but there comes a variety. Let us check out through some of them.

Here is a list of few very popular types of apples across the world in alphabetical order:

Arkansas Black: Originated in 1870 in Arkansas in United States, these apples are usually hard having a firm texture. They are crunchy and have a sour taste. They usually have a deep red color which is so intense that it appears black from a distance. Arkansas are usually cooked and consumed. It is a key ingredient of sauerkraut recipes.

Braeburn: Originated in New Zealand around 1950 due to mere chance seedling these apples became extremely popular in UK later on. They are usually reddish orange in color with a light yellow backdrop. Their season of availability is from October to July. They find their use in makings of salads, apple sauces and pies. They can be consumed even in baked form. For later consumption an option of freezing is also available with them.

Cameo: They were accidently discovered by crossing over of two very famous apple breeds golden delicious apple and red delicious apple in 1980 in Washington DC. It has unique white spots against a red skin. Cameo is though harvested in the month of September but is available to the consumers only between October and August. Cameos are used to make desserts like apple crisp or apple crumb. They can be also used in salads, sauces or pies. They have the feasibility of both being baked and frozen.

Cortland: It was discovered in 1890 in New York in United States. It ripens in the month of October but is usually available throughout the year except for the month of January, March and April. It has a red apple with a greenish yellow skin. Cortland is generally sweet with a slight sourness. Hence they are generally used in making pies, sauces and salads. Once again even they can be frozen. They can be baked and serve as an excellent option of a being a snack after meals.

Empire: Discovered in 1966 in New York these apples have a semi acidic thalamus. These greenish red apples have hint of both sweetness and tartness. They are used in making salads, pies snacks and sauces. They are available round the year but still can be stored by freezing.

Fuji: As the name suggests they have originated from Japan around 1930 by crossing of Red Delicious × Ralls Genet. They have a reddish pinkish color and are generally sweet and crunchy in taste. Therefore they are used in making salads, pies and sauces and even serve as a snack after meals. They are generally in market from October to August. They have comparatively longer shelf life even without refrigeration.

Gala: Made by crossing of Kidds Orange Red × Golden Delicious in 1970 in New Zealand. It is covered by pinkish stripes over a yellow background. They have a very thin tender skin and are usually sweet in taste. Used for making sauces, pies, snacks and salads, it turns a bit bland upon baking, but not suited for freezing. It is available from September to May.

Ginger Gold: It originated in Virginia in 1960. This apple has a pale green yellow color with a crusty surface. They are not completely sweet in taste and have a slight tanginess. It is excellent for baking as well as cooking purposes therefore used to make pies and apple sauces. It is unsuitable for freezing. One can get them in market from August to November.

Golden Delicious: Originated around 1914 in Clay County, West Virginia, United States this apple as the name suggest is not only extremely delicious but has a beautiful golden yellow hue. It has a thin skin with a sweet juicy flesh. Used generally for making jams, pies, salads and sauces. It is generally not baked but can be frozen. This variety is consumed throughout the year.

Granny Smith: Discovered in 1868 in Australia they were the first green apples available in American market. Also known as common pie apple they are green in color and extremely tart hence not suitable for direct eating. Instead it is used in for making sauces, pies, salads, snacks and even for baking. They have a long shelf life and can survive extreme frosty conditions for almost six months. This variety is also available for the whole year.

Gravenstein apples: Originated in Schleswig-Holstein in Germany in 17 century is one of the oldest breeds of apple. They are generally reddish green with a juicy flesh and a thin skin. The taste is highly acidic thus employed in making cider. Generally used for baking purposes. They are now considered as an antique breed, thus an important heritage apple.

Honeycrisp: Originated in 1960 in Minnesota in United States this variety found its existence in the market in 90s. The skin has combination of both red as well as yellow color. Have a sweet and a crispy taste but still is not suitable for making pies. It can be used for making salads and sauces and of course baking. It has pretty good storage properties.

Idared: They originated in Idaho in United States in 1942. It is a versatile type with a sweet taste and a pink skin. Hence used in making sauces, salads, pies, snacks and can be even baked and frozen. They are available throughout the year except for the month of September.

Jonagold: They were first found in New York in 1968. It is a hybrid between Jonathan and the Golden Delicious apple. Different strains have different colors. It has a sweet taste with slight tartness and is thus used for making sweet and sour sauces, pies, salads. They can be used as snacks and can be baked and frozen. They can be seen in market during the month of October to May.

Jonathan: Originated in New York in 1820s, this apple has adaptability for cooler regions. It has a red skin with green patches and has an acidic taste. It is widely used un salads, pies, sauces and can be frozen as well as baked.

McIntosh: It is a Canadian breed which originated in Ontario in 1811. The skin is blended by both green and red color while the while flesh is filled with sweet juice and spicy aroma. Perhaps this is the reason why this is so much in demand by the kids. This variety is excellent for making sauces, pies, salads and snacks. But when it comes to freezing and baking then it is a bad choice. McIntosh is actively used in cross breeding so as to produce other popular apple breeds like Cortland, Empire, and Spartan. One can get them in between September to June.

Red Delicious: They first originated in Iowa in United States in 1870, often referred as “Starking Delicious”. It is a bright red apple with an extremely sweet taste. It is taller and thinner as compared to other rounder varieties and hence a signature of American apple industry. It has a combatively thicker skin and thus is not apt for baking. It tastes better when eaten raw but is still used for eating and snacking purposes. It is a bad option for cooking and making cider. They are harvested usually in the fall but still are available throughout the year.

Rome Beauty: They came from Ohio in 19 century are lump rounded apples. Their skin is red but flesh has a tint of green, with slight crispiness and tartness. Since they have a thin skin hence not good for snacking purposes but can be very easily baked and used for making cider. At times used for making salads and pies and have an option of being frozen too for future consumption.

Winesap: Again it is an American breed which originated in 1817. They have a deep red skin with tints of green and are of comparatively smaller size. They are usually sour and hence not consumed in raw form. They are a bit spicy too with a distinct wine fragrance. Thus they find application in cider and sauce industries and are seldom seen in grocery stores.

Still researches are being carried out so as to develop yet a better variety of apples. With newer breeds, better options come in hand too. Apples are not only healthy but even tasty. They provide you a variety to choose from because of their versatility. Not only they can be taken in raw form, but can be cooked, baked or even used in drinks. However choosy or edgy you maybe, you simply cannot deny an apple.